Introduction
Human resource development (HRD) is the foundation of economic growth, innovation, and social progress. Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) lies at the core of the HRD as it is a system designed to equip individuals with practical skills, industry-specific knowledge, and employability competencies. Globally, TVET has proven to be a transformative force, bridging education with employment, fostering entrepreneurship, and ensuring that economies remain competitive in rapidly evolving labour markets. As Pavlova (2014) highlights, TVET plays a particularly important role in developing countries by cultivating competitive human resources who can contribute to social, economic, and environmental development.
In Nepal, however, the full potential of TVET in advancing human resource development has yet to be realised. Despite decades of policy dialogue, donor-funded initiatives, and institutional reforms, the sector continues to grapple with persistent challenges. Even with constitutional mandates under the federal system, Nepal’s TVET landscape remains fragmented across multiple agencies, underfunded relative to national priorities, and undervalued compared to general education.
Moreover, Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) has not yet taken on a pivotal role in Nepal’s national development or received the recognition it deserves for its contribution to human resource development. Its frequent disconnection from labour market realities has weakened responsiveness and effectiveness, while structural issues such as fragmented governance, limited financing, and weak industry linkages have further constrained the sector’s ability to meet labour market demands. As a result, Nepal continues to struggle in building a skilled workforce capable of driving economic growth, fostering innovation, and advancing social progress.
The central challenge is to reposition Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) from a peripheral role into a core mechanism for developing a competitive workforce. In parallel, there are promising examples and initiatives that demonstrate TVET’s potential, which need to be capitalised on and recognised as part of a long-term vision for the country.
TVET is a driver of global HRD
Globally, Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) systems have evolved into powerful engines of workforce readiness and
economic resilience. TVET is not a “second choice” pathway; rather, it is increasingly recognised as a strategic investment in human capital. Countries such as Germany and Switzerland have advanced the dual education model, which combines classroom instruction with work-based learning. This approach produces job-ready graduates and ensures strong alignment with labour market needs. In 2024, about 75% of Swiss youth entered apprenticeships compared to 53% in Germany, and youth unemployment in both countries stayed very low, which is around 3-6%, well below the EU average (OECD, 2024).
In Singapore, TVET is fully integrated into national development planning. Institutions such as the Institute of Technical Education (ITE) work closely with employers to design curricula that reflect industry demands. Recent data shows that nearly 90% of ITE Work-Study Diploma graduates secure full-time employment within six months, earning a median monthly salary of about SGD 2,900. Furthermore, 70% remain with the company that trained them, demonstrating strong industry linkages and workforce readiness (Ministry of Education Singapore, 2024).
The World Bank (Soh, Koh, & Aridi, 2023) highlights how embedding TVET into economic planning supported Korea’s rapid industrialisation.
Beginning in the 1960s, TVET was embedded into the country’s Five- Year Economic Development Plans, supplying the technicians and engineers who powered rapid industrialisation. Continuous reforms across different periods ensured adaptability and upskilling, supporting South Korea’s transition into a knowledge-based economy.
Repositioning TVET in Nepal’s HRD landscape
Despite global success stories, Nepal has lagged behind in realising the full potential of TVET due to persistent systemic weaknesses. In principle, TVET is meant to fall under a single ministry, but in practice responsibilities are scattered. The Ministry of Education oversees TVET, while the Ministry of Labour and Employment also runs skills training programmes. In addition, other ministries including Tourism, Agriculture, and Industry offer their own forms of training. As a result, thousands of training institutions under these ministries deliver different levels and types of programmes each year, but without a unified framework or effective coordination. Training programmes remain overly theoretical, with limited industry exposure, and employers consistently complain that graduates lack the practical skills required in
the workplace. This fragmentation has undermined TVET’s ability to prepare young people for the labour market, weakening its contribution to human resource development and leaving employers without the qualified workforce they urgently need.
A persistent perception problem continues to undermine the value of TVET in building human resources for national development. It is often regarded as a fallback option for those unable to pursue higher education, which creates stigma and reduces its attractiveness and prestige. This perception discourages talented youth from entering vocational streams. Moreover, limited pathways for progression into higher education reinforce the stigma, restrict career mobility, and diminish TVET’s potential to serve as a true driver of human resource development.
From an HRD standpoint, Nepal’s TVET journey could have been far more impactful if reforms had prioritised coherence and alignment. A unified national framework would have reduced fragmentation and ensured consistency across institutions. Employer-led training could have aligned curricula with labour market needs, producing graduates who were employable from day one. Robust quality assurance mechanisms would have built trust
TVET is not a “second choice” pathway; rather, it is increasingly recognised as a strategic investment in human capital.
among employers and enhanced credibility. Clear career pathways from vocational training to higher education would have elevated the status of TVET, while public awareness campaigns could have reshaped societal perceptions, positioning vocational education as an essential pillar of human capital development.
Despite past shortcomings, Nepal now has several opportunities to reposition TVET as a cornerstone of human resource development. Encouraging progress is gradually emerging, with growing recognition of TVET as a crucial driver of HRD. Higher-level courses are being developed in close collaboration with industries. A notable example is the introduction of labour market–driven programmes in economically promising sectors such as hospitality and information technology. These initiatives are creating flexible pathways for young people, enabling them to become competitive contributors to national development.
One of the most significant innovations is the Industry Integrated Degrees (IID) programme in IT, led by the Nepal Association for Software and IT Services Companies (NAS-IT). This demonstrates how homegrown solutions can align education with economic priorities and strengthen HRD. Unlike traditional TVET programmes, IID
programmes blend academic learning with structured industry exposure, producing graduates who are both theoretically sound and practically competent. Curricula are co-designed with IT industries and employers, ensuring relevance to labour market needs and reducing the mismatch between skills and jobs. Students spend substantial time in industries, applying classroom knowledge to real-world challenges. These graduates can transition smoothly into higher education or professional careers, breaking the stigma of TVET as a “dead end.” This model produces competitive human resources that meet international standards, enhances employability abroad, and positions Nepal as a source of skilled labour.
Moreover, positive changes are also taking place at the policy level. The Government of Nepal (2022) introduced the TVET Sector Strategic Plan (2023–2032), a long-term vision to unlock the sector’s potential. If effectively implemented, the TSSP will establish a coherent framework for governance, sustainable financing, quality assurance, and stronger industry linkages. Furthermore, employers are beginning to play more visible roles through institutionalised efforts such as the establishment of employer foundations for TVET. At the same time, Nepal can harness TVET’s potential for competitive HRD through international collaboration. Support from the European Union, Asian Development Bank, Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation, the World Bank, and other development partners provides resources and expertise, while digital transformation opens new opportunities for blended learning and online skill development. Together, these initiatives create a strong foundation for repositioning TVET as a central driver of Nepal’s human resource development agenda.
Conclusion
TVET is not just about producing workers; it is about building human capital for national development. Countries that invested early in
TVET gained benefits in productivity, innovation, and social equity. Nepal now has the chance to reposition TVET as a cornerstone of HRD by adopting a long- term vision, fostering innovation, and securing international support. When embraced as a strategic pillar of HRD, TVET can drive national transformation, equipping Nepal with the skills and capacities essential for sustained progress.
References
Government of Nepal, Ministry of Education, Science and Technology. (2022). TVET Sector Strategic Plan (2023–2032). Kathmandu: MoEST. https://moest.gov.np/publication/tvet- sector-strategic-plan-2023-2032 (moest. gov.np in Bing)
Ministry of Education Singapore. (2025). Data on enrolment, graduation, non-completion and employment of students under ITE Work-Study Diploma programme. Ministry of Education Singapore. https://www.
moe.gov.sg/news/parliamentary-replies/ data-on-enrolment-graduation-non- completion-and-employment (moe.gov. sg in Bing)
Nepal Association for Software and IT Services Companies (NAS-IT). (2026). Industry Integrated Degree (IID) program overview. TechPatra. https:// techpatra.com/nas-it-nepal-open- university-launch-industry-integrated- degree (techpatra.com in Bing)
OECD. (2024). Education at a glance 2024: OECD indicators. OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/ c00cad36-en
Pavlova, M. (2014). TVET as an important factor in country economic development. SpringerPlus, 3(S1), K3. https://doi.org/10.1186/2193-1801-3-S1-K3 (doi.org in Bing)
Soh, H. S., Koh, Y., & Aridi, A. (Eds.). (2023). Innovative Korea: Leveraging innovation and technology for development. World Bank. https:// openknowledge.worldbank.org/ handle/10986/40234
